they are, upon this principle common to all men, apt to mistake any opposition or resistance to them for an opposition to religion. Hence partly the great vehemence and inveteracy whenever religion is mixed up with politics.

The minister or priest has naturally much influence over part of his flock; on this ground it becomes dangerous to the people, if they abuse this influence in making it serve for political ends. Civil liberty can no where exist, where the clergy act thus against their own sacred calling. That the clergyman cannot observe these rules if he strives for or accepts of political offices, and must interfere by doing so with his own essential efficiency as clergyman, is evident. The English revolution as well as the history of the British court furnish ample proofs.

XLVI. I do not recommend political indifferentism. On the contrary I believe that, generally speaking, the clergy, in our times, urge far too little the importance and sacredness of all civil duties and political virtues upon the people. Let them cultivate and expound the holiness of obedience to the laws of the land, of love of liberty, of the fruitfulness of public spirit for the community as well as him who possesses it, of the inspiration of patriotism, of the instructive, invigorating and tempering effect of the study of our own history, and if they make these virtues gush forth from the heart like pure and native streams, to nourish and irrigate a thousand different plants, the ministers will not be idle as citizens, but will form, even in a political point of view, a most invaluable class of citizens. But so soon as they turn the bible to support or attack one measure or the other, they cannot but diffuse mischief. In cases of extremity, when the land is in danger by invasion, when liberty is to be defended by war, then indeed let them mount the pulpit, and inspire their hearers with all the life they can; when citizens, faithful to their country, suffer hunger and plague, besieged by the enemy, let them exhort and comfort, and strengthen, as those of Leyden did against the Spaniards, as George Walker did in Londonderry, in 1689. (1) Who that believes William III. a benefactor to England, would not thank Walker for his conduct? On the other hand, we have the instance of the hermit Nicolas of the Tlüe, who, when the Swiss cantons, in 1481, were on the point of disunion, because they could not agree on a division of Burgundian booty, and when the danger had reached its highest point, darted forth from his solitude, and among the confederates, and called for peace in the name of that God who had given them so many victories. His words were penetrating; his admonition powerful; he saved his country. He could not have. done it, had he habitually or occasionally interfered with politics. (2) The Rev. Dr. Witherspoon was one of the signers of the American Act of Independence. Those times were of an extraordinary character; but even in those excited times he continued to exhort from the pulpit, to show a spirit strong in resisting any call to surrender the rights of freemen, yet ready for reconciliation upon the condition of security of those rights. (3)

Nearly the same may be said of the ethico-political obligations of schoolmasters with reference to their pupils. Let them cultivate true and generous patriotism.

(1) Trevor, Life of William III., vol. ii, chap. 3.

(2) Müller, Swiss History, vol. vi, p. 299. A very brief account may be found in the Swiss History, forming part of Lardner's Cabinet of History.

(3) For instance, in his Pastoral Letter from the Presbyterian Synod of New York and Philadelphia, in 1775, written by Dr. Witherspoon, after the battles of Bunker hill and Lexington.

1

BOOK FIFTH.

CHAPTER I.

Voting. Principle of Unanimity; of Majority and Minority.-Deliberative Procedures. All who have a right to vote ought to vote.-According to what Rules. (Election Statistics.) - Voting for Officers. When we ought to abstain from Voting.-Influencing Elections.-Canvassing.-Intimidation, individual and official.-Bribery.-Severe Laws against it in Athens.Bribing Mutual Insurance Companies in Athens. Bribes of common Voters. Bribing Judges; Legislators. Bribes by Government of its own citizens.-Bribes by foreign Powers. Betting on Elections.-Election Riots and Disturbance around the Poll. - Various other Election Malpractices.

I. VOTING is the usual way of ascertaining the disposition of any number of men, or a society, respecting the adoption or rejection of a certain measure or person. Whenever a number of men must come to a final conclusion and joint action, voting must be resorted to if there is not unanimity among them. By voting on a large scale public opinion passes into public will. The ancients were acquainted with voting, and had largely introduced it into politics. They had majorities and minorities; but in the middle ages the principle of unanimity, and, in cases where mere rejection of some proposed measure does not suffice, of forced unanimity, as we act upon this principle still in England and America, in jury verdicts, was in many cases adopted. The election law of the German emperor, of 1356,